Forced Marriage and Sex Trafficking under the Guise of Nikah Siri in Indonesia

Zezen Zaenal Mutaqin, Yayan Sopyan

Abstract


Prostitution, forced marriage, and sex trafficking have long been practiced in the Puncak area of West Java, Indonesia. The practice is condoned not only by the surrounding community but also by state officials. This paper resulted from our field research, interviews, and observation in the Puncak area. In addition, it includes an extensive literature review, which encompasses the study of Indonesian and international law regulation, academic writing, and media reports. This paper seeks to uncover the reasons why the practices of sex trafficking and forced marriage are tolerated and what has led to this approval. By dwelling on legal, historical, and anthropological studies, this paper argues that the practices are tolerated because they hide behind a thick veil of cultural-religious justification and are obscured by legal tricks/stratagems, which we call 'trafficking framing.' This framing conceals and camouflages sex trafficking and forced marriage under accepted legal-cultural practices. This paper seeks to uncover the veil of trafficking framing and reveal that the practice of secret marriage (nikah siri) in Puncak is nothing but sex trafficking.

Keywords


Forced Marriage; Sex Trafficking; Secret Marriage (Nikah Siri); Legal Trick; Indonesia

Full Text:

PDF

References


Al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. 2019. Birr Al-Walidayn: Being Dutiful to Parents. Turath Publishing.

Allert, Jeanne L. 2022. “Justice Professionals’ Lens on Familial Trafficking Cases.” Criminal Justice Review 47(2): 208–24. doi:10.1177/07340168211024719.

Amnesty International. 2012. “The Horror of ‘Honor Killings’, Even in US.” Amnesty International USA. https://www.amnestyusa.org/updates/the-horror-of-honor-killings-even-in-us/ (January 26, 2024).

Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1998. “From Temporary Wife to Prostitute: Sexuality and Economic Change in Early Modern Southeast Asia.” Journal of Women’s History 9(4): 11–34. doi:10.1353/jowh.2010.0225.

Arivia, Gadis, and Abby Gina. 2015. “Culture, Sex and Religion: A Review of Temporary Marriages in Cisarua And.” Indonesian Feminist Journal 3(1): 23.

Aronowitz, Alexis A., and Anneke Koning. 2014. “Understanding human trafficking as a market system: addressing the demand side of trafficking for sexual exploitation.” Revue internationale de droit pénal 85(3–4): 669–96. doi:10.3917/ridp.853.0669.

Azeharie, Suzy, and Eko Harry Susanto. 2018. “Tourism in Cisarua Changes the Culture of Local People: Study of Culture Acculturation between Local Community and Arab Tourist in Cisarua:” In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Entrepreneurship and Business Management, Jakarta, Indonesia: SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications, 76–80. doi:10.5220/0008488400760080.

Baay, Reggie. 2008. Nyai Dan Pergundikan Di Hindia Belanda. Depok: Komunitas Bambu.

Bah, Yahya Muhammed, Myrtati D. Artaria, and Mein-Woei Suen. 2022. “Child Sex Tourism: A Case Study in Surabaya, Indonesia.” Journal of Developing Societies 38(1): 103–17. doi:10.1177/0169796X211068398.

Bahari, Razif. 2007. “Between a Rock and a Hard Place? Interstitial Female Subjectivity in between Colonialism and Patriarchy: Women in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Buru Tetralogy.” Indonesia (83): 41–77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40376413 (January 27, 2024).

Bajari, Atwar. 2013. “Women as Commodities, the Analysis of Local Culture Factor and Communication Approach of Women Trafficking in West Java, Indonesia.” Research on Humanities and Social Science 3(5): 193–200. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234673476.pdf (January 23, 2024).

Bank Indonesia. 2021. Jumlah Tenaga Kerja Indonesia (TKI) Menurut Negara Penempatan (Ribuan Orang). https://www.bi.go.id/SEKI/tabel/TABEL5_30.pdf.

Bano, Shadab. 1999. “Marriage and Concubinage in the Mughal Imperial Family.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 60: 353–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44144101 (January 24, 2024).

BBC Indonesia. 2021. “‘Kawin kontrak’ di balik kasus penyiraman air keras di Cianjur.” BBC News Indonesia. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-59379830 (January 30, 2024).

Bernstein, E., and E. Shih. 2014. “The Erotics of Authenticity: Sex Trafficking and ‘Reality Tourism’ in Thailand.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 21(3): 430–60. doi:10.1093/sp/jxu022.

Billah, Muhammad Masum. 2014. “The Prohibition of Ribā and the Use of Ḥiyāl by Islamic Banks to Overcome the Prohibition.” Arab Law Quarterly 28(4): 392–408. https://brill.com/view/journals/alq/28/4/article-p392_3.xml (January 26, 2024).

Bogordaily. 2022. “Wisata Puncak Bogor Sumbang Rp282 Miliar APBD Bogor 2021.” https://bogordaily.net/2022/05/wisata-puncak-bogor-sumbang-rp282-miliar-apbd-kabupaten-bogor-2021/ (January 31, 2024).

Bosma, Ulbe. 2007. “The Cultivation System (1830–1870) and Its Private Entrepreneurs on Colonial Java.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 38(2): 275–91.

Brooks, Ann, and Vanessa Heaslip. 2018. “Sex Trafficking and Sex Tourism in a Globalised World.” Tourism Review 74(5): 1104–15. doi:10.1108/TR-02-2017-0017.

Cattelan, Valentino. 2017. “Between Theory (-Ies) and Practice (-s): Legal Devices (Ḥiyal) in Classical Islamic Law.” arab law quarterly 31(3): 245–75. https://brill.com/view/journals/alq/31/3/article-p245_245.xml (January 26, 2024).

Council of Europe. 2005. Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings and Its Explanatory Report.

Damarjati, Danu. 2022. “Pria Hidung Belang di Kasus Cassandra Angelie Bisa Dijerat Pasal Ini!” detiknews. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-5882703/pria-hidung-belang-di-kasus-cassandra-angelie-bisa-dijerat-pasal-ini (January 29, 2024).

Dell, Melissa, and Benjamin A Olken. 2020. “The Development Effects of the Extractive Colonial Economy: The Dutch Cultivation System in Java.” The Review of Economic Studies 87(1): 164–203. doi:10.1093/restud/rdz017.

Depa. 2016. “Ini Dia Tarif PSK Pashtun di Puncak - Cipanas.” Pojoksatu.id. https://jabar.pojoksatu.id/cianjur/2016/09/13/ini-dia-tarif-psk-pashtun-di-puncak-cipanas/ (January 27, 2024).

Department of States. 2022. Trafficking in Persons Report 2022.

Detik.com. 2013. “3 Perempuan Cantik Terkait Tersangka Impor Sapi Ahmad Fathanah.” detiknews. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-2238715/3-perempuan-cantik-terkait-tersangka-impor-sapi-ahmad-fathanah (January 30, 2024).

Ekberg, Gunilla. 2004. “The Swedish Law That Prohibits the Purchase of Sexual Services: Best Practices for Prevention of Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings.” Violence Against Women 10(10): 1187–1218. doi:10.1177/1077801204268647.

El-Azhari, Taef Kamal. 2019. Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Farhan. 2016. “5 Perempuan asal Maroko Ditangkap di Puncak, Diduga Bekerja sebagai PSK.” detiknews. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3275092/5-perempuan-asal-maroko-ditangkap-di-puncak-diduga-bekerja-sebagai-psk (January 25, 2024).

Fasseur, C. 1986. “The Cultivation System and Its Impact on the Dutch Colonial Economy and the Indigenous Society in Nineteenth-Century Java.” In Two Colonial Empires: Comparative Essays on the History of India and Indonesia in the Nineteenth Century, Comparative Studies in Overseas History, eds. C. A. Bayly and D. H. A. Kolff. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 137–54.

Fathoni, Rifai Shodiq. 2023. “Geliat Prostitusi Di Seputar Jalur Kereta Api Kolonial - Wawasan Sejarah.” https://wawasansejarah.com/prostitusi-di-seputar-jalur-kereta-api-kolonial/ (January 24, 2024).

Gibson, Thomas. 2008. “From Stranger-King to Stranger-Shaikh: Austronesian Symbolism and Islamic Knowledge.” Indonesia and the Malay World 36(105): 309–21. doi:10.1080/13639810802268072.

GoGwilt, Chris. 2007. “The Vanishing Genre of the Nyai Narrative: Reading Genealogies of English and Indonesian Modernism.” Comparative Literature Studies 44(4): 409–33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25659613 (January 27, 2024).

Gugus Tugas TPPO. 2019. Laporan Kinerja Gugus Tugas PP-TPPO 2015-2019.

Handayani, Mei. 2021. “Patriarchy and Women’s Subordination: Study of Nyai Ontosoroh in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s This Earth of Mankind”.” https://www.academia.edu/106912719/Patriarchy_and_Women_s_Subordination_Study_of_Nyai_Ontosoroh_in_Pramoedya_Ananta_Toer_s_This_Earth_of_Mankind_ (January 27, 2024).

Hartanto, Iman Dwi, and Reza R. Hudiyanto. 2023. “Prostitusi Di Semarang Pasca 1852.” Historia: Jurnal Pendidik dan Peneliti Sejarah 6(1): 55–62.

Henley, David. 2004. “Conflict, Justice, and the Stranger-King Indigenous Roots of Colonial Rule in Indonesia and Elsewhere.” Modern Asian Studies 38(1): 85–144. doi:10.1017/S0026749X04001039.

Hera, FX Domini BB, and Daya Negri Wijaya. 2014. “Terasing dalam Budaya Barat dan Timur: Potret ‘Nyai’ Hindia Belanda, Abad XVII-XX.” Jurnal Antropologi: Isu-Isu Sosial Budaya 16(1): 49–56. doi:10.25077/jantro.v16.n1.p49-56.2014.

HM Government. 2016. “Definition of Child Sexual Exploitation, Government Consultation Responses.” https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a7f5c68ed915d74e33f5f4d/HO_DfE_consultation_response_on_CSE_definition_FINAL_13_Feb_2017__2_.pdf.

Horii, Satoe. 2002. “Reconsideration of Legal Devices (Ḥiyal) in Islamic Jurisprudence: The Ḥanafīs and Their” Exits”(Makhārij).” Islamic Law and Society 9(3): 312–57. https://brill.com/view/journals/ils/9/3/article-p312_2.xml (January 26, 2024).

Hughes, Donna M. 2000. “The ‘Natasha’ Trade: The Transnational Shadow Market of Trafficking in Women.” Journal of International Affairs 53(2): 625–51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357768 (January 29, 2024).

Hughes, Donna M. 2004. “Best Practices to Address the Demand Side of Sex Trafficking.” https://www.popcenter.org/sites/default/files/problems/trafficked_women/PDFs/Hughes_2004a.pdf (January 29, 2024).

Hull, Terence H. 2017. “From Concubines to Prostitutes. A Partial History of Trade in Sexual Services in Indonesia.” Moussons. Recherche en sciences humaines sur l’Asie du Sud-Est (29): 65–93. doi:10.4000/moussons.3771.

Hulsbergen, Flier. Report on Child Sexual Exploitation in the Tourism Industry An Analysis of Ambiguous Spaces in Bali. https://doc.vortala.com/assoc/uploads/19/files/2015/10/Report-on-child-sexual-exploitation-in-the-tourism-industry-Bali.pdf.

Hunt, Swanee. 2013. “Deconstructing Demand: The Driving Force of Sex Trafficking.” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 19(2): 225–41. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590831 (January 27, 2024).

IOM Indonesia. 2023. Legal Review the Implementation of Law Number 21 of 2007 Regarding the Eradication of Trafficking in Persons. Jakarta.

IOM, and Polaris. 2017. “Family Members Linked to Nearly Half of Child Trafficking: New IOM, Polaris Data.” International Organization for Migration. https://www.iom.int/news/family-members-linked-nearly-half-child-trafficking-new-iom-polaris-data (January 31, 2024).

Ismail, Muhammed Imran. 2010. “Legal Stratagems (Hiyal) and Usury in Islamic Commercial Law.” PhD Thesis. University of Birmingham. https://etheses.bham.ac.uk/id/eprint/1325/ (January 26, 2024).

Janti, Nur. 2019a. “Nyai Ontosoroh dan Kisah Pergundikan di Hindia Belanda.” Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia. https://historia.id/kultur/articles/nyai-ontosoroh-dan-kisah-pergundikan-di-hindia-belanda-DrLgw (January 24, 2024).

Janti, Nur. 2019b. “Pergundikan di Perkebunan.” Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia. https://historia.id/politik/articles/pergundikan-di-perkebunan-vx28o (January 24, 2024).

Jeffreys, Sheila. 1999. “Globalizing Sexual Exploitation: Sex Tourism and the Traffic in Women.” Leisure Studies. doi:10.1080/026143699374916.

Khuluq, Lathiful, Sriharini Sriharini, Ahmad Izudin, and Irwan Abdullah. 2022. “The Manipulation of Power and the Trafficking of Women during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Narratives from Indonesia.” Journal of Human Trafficking: 1–14. doi:10.1080/23322705.2022.2133876.

Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan (Komnas Perempuan). 2022. “Siaran Pers Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan Tentang Penanganan Komprehensif Kasus Prostitusi Online Melalui Penjangkauan Pada Pengguna Dan Penerapan UU Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang (UU TPPPO).” Komnas Perempuan | Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan. https://komnasperempuan.go.id/siaran-pers-detail/siaran-pers-komisi-nasional-anti-kekerasan-terhadap-perempuan-tentang-penanganan-komprehensif-kasus-prostitusi-online-melalui-penjangkauan-pada-pengguna-dan-penerapan-uu-tindak-pidana-perdagangan-orang-uu-tpppo (January 29, 2024).

Kompas. 2016. “Nuansa Timur Tengah di Kawasan Puncak.” KOMPAS.com. https://travel.kompas.com/read/xml/2016/01/17/113200427/Nuansa.Timur.Tengah.di.Kawasan.Puncak (January 31, 2024).

Kusumadewi, Angela, and Sri Mulatsih. 2021. “Nyai Ontosoroh’s Feminism Movement Against Dutch Colonialism in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s ‘Bumi Manusia’ Novel’s Movie Adaptation.” In Proceedings of the 2nd International Seminar on Translation Studies, Applied Linguistics, Literature and Cultural Studies, STRUKTURAL 2020, 30 December 2020, Semarang, Indonesia, Indonesia: EAI. doi:10.4108/eai.30-12-2020.2311266.

Law No 21/2007. 2007. Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang.

Mahendra, Rizky Adha. 2023. “9 PSK di Puncak Bogor Diberi Upah Rp 2 Juta, Target Layani 40 Pelanggan.” detiknews. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6769216/9-psk-di-puncak-bogor-diberi-upah-rp-2-juta-target-layani-40-pelanggan (January 27, 2024).

Martin, Lauren. 2017. “Sex Buyers: The ‘Demand Side’ of Sex Trafficking.” St. Thomas Journal of Law & Public Policy 12(6).

Menteri Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak. 2010. Peraturan Menteri Pemberdayaan Perempuan Dan Perlindungan Anak Nomor1 Tahun 2010 Tentang Standar Pelayanan Minimal Bidang Layanan Terpadu Bagi Perempuan Dan Anak Korban Kekerasan.

Mutaqin, Zezen Zaenal. 2016. “The Strong State and Pancasila: Reflecting Human Rights in the Indonesian Democracy.” Constitutional Review (Consrev) 2: 159.

Naibaho, Nathalina. 2011. “Human Trafficking in Indonesia: Law Enforcement Problems.” Indon. L. Rev. 1: 83. https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/indolawrev1&section=8 (October 6, 2023).

Nichols, Andrea, and Erin Heil. 2017. “Prosecuting Buyers in Human Trafficking Cases: An Analysis of the Implications of United States v. Jungers and United States v. Bonestroo.” Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence 2(4). doi:10.23860/dignity.2017.02.04.02.

Niekerk, Carl. 2023. “Colonialism and the Politics of Gender and Literature in the Netherlands Indies: The Story of the Nyai.” In Gender and German Colonialism, Routledge.

Niel, R. van. 1992. Java under the Cultivation System. Leiden: BRILL.

Niemi, Johanna, and Jussi Aaltonen. 2017. “Tackling Trafficking by Targeting Sex Buyers: Can It Work?” Violence Against Women 23(10): 1228–48.

Nisa, Eva F. 2018. “The Bureaucratization of Muslim Marriage in Indonesia.” Journal of Law and Religion 33(2): 291–309. doi:10.1017/jlr.2018.28.

Nuraeny, Henny, and Kuswandi. 2019. “Legal Protection for Contract Marriage Victims in Indonesia.” Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues 22: 1. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jnlolletl22&id=550&div=&collection=.

Nuranisa, Safira Amalia, Nunung Nurwati, and Muhammad Fedryansyah. 2022. “Anomaly” Marriage Mut’ah” in Arab Village Bogor.” LEGAL BRIEF 11(2): 660–67. http://legal.isha.or.id/index.php/legal/article/view/182 (January 23, 2024).

Oubre, Claude F., and Keith P. Fontenot. 2001. “Emancipation and Concubinage in Antebellum St. Landry Parish.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 42(4): 419–37. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4233782 (January 24, 2024).

Pranata, Galih. 2021. “Seluk Beluk Cerita Kehidupan Para Nyai di Zaman Hindia Belanda.” National Geographic. https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/132855486/seluk-beluk-cerita-kehidupan-para-nyai-di-zaman-hindia-belanda (January 24, 2024).

Radar Cianjur. 2021. “70 Ribu Pasutri Nikah Siri Cianjur Dapat Kartu Keluarga - Radar Cianjur.” 70 Ribu Pasutri Nikah Siri Cianjur Dapat Kartu Keluarga - Radar Cianjur. https://www.radarcianjur.com/cianjur-raya/pr-9456644573/70-ribu-pasutri-nikah-siri-cianjur-dapat-kartu-keluarga (January 26, 2024).

Reid, Joan A., Juliana Huard, and Rachael A. Haskell. 2015. “Family-Facilitated Juvenile Sex Trafficking.” Journal of Crime and Justice 38(3): 361–76. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2014.967965.

Riswandari, Ika Kurnia. 2023. “Understanding Child Sexual Exploitation through Under-Aged Contractual Marriage in Bogor, Indonesia.” In International Hybrid Conference on “Current Issues in Human Rights and Development Research,” , 187. https://ihrp.mahidol.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/CoverpageFINAL-Papers_for-website30.pdf#page=191 (January 25, 2024).

Ross, Margaret Clunies. 1985. “Concubinage in Anglo-Saxon England.” Past & Present (108): 3–34. https://www.jstor.org/stable/650572 (January 24, 2024).

Sahlins, Marshall. 2008. “The Stranger-King or, Elementary Forms of the Politics of Life.” Indonesia and The Malay World 36: 177–99. doi:10.1080/13639810802267918.

Sanghera, Jyoti. 2005. “Unpacking the Trafficking Discourse.” In Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered, Routledge.

Sani, Ahmad Faiz Ibnu. 2023. “55 Persen Pasangan Suami Istri Di Kabupaten Bogor Nikah Siri.” Tempo. https://metro.tempo.co/read/1675465/55-persen-pasangan-suami-istri-di-kabupaten-bogor-nikah-siri (January 26, 2024).

Sari, Yuniar Aristia Paramita. 2021. “Understanding Human Traffikers in Indonesia: Characteristics, Perspectives, and Pathways to Prevention.” Dissertation. RMIT University.

Sealey, Raphael. 1984. “On Lawful Concubinage in Athens.” Classical Antiquity 3(1): 111–33. doi:10.2307/25010809.

Shively, Michael, Kristina Kliorys, Kristin Wheeler, and Dana Hunt. 2012. “A National Overview of Prostitution and Sex Trafficking Demand Reduction Efforts, Final Report.” The National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/national-overview-prostitution-and-sex-trafficking-demand-reduction (January 29, 2024).

Singh, Deler, and Dipali S. Bhandari. 2021. “Legacy of Honor and Violence: An Analysis of Factors Responsible for Honor Killings in Afghanistan, Canada, India, and Pakistan as Discussed in Selected Documentaries on Real Cases.” SAGE Open 11(2): 21582440211022323. doi:10.1177/21582440211022323.

Sopyan, Yayan, Zezen Zainal Muttaqin, Cucu Solihat, and Jaenal Aripin. 2023. “Child Exploitation by Parents in Early Marriage: Case Study in Cianjur West Java, Indonesia.” Samarah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga dan Hukum Islam 7(3): 1921. doi:10.22373/sjhk.v7i3.14804.

Sprang, Ginny, and Jennifer Cole. 2018. “Familial Sex Trafficking of Minors: Trafficking Conditions, Clinical Presentation, and System Involvement.” Journal of Family Violence 33(3): 185–95. doi:10.1007/s10896-018-9950-y.

Suhud, Usep, and N. Syabai. 2014. “Halal Sex Tourism in Indonesia: Understanding the Motivation of Young Female Host to Marry with Middle Eastern Male Tourists.” J Eco Sustain Dev 5: 91–94. https://www.academia.edu/download/50203819/17530-19917-1-PB.pdf (January 23, 2024).

Syafrullah, Appridzani. 2020. “Seks Dan Modernitas: Transformasi Tempat Prostitusi Di Jawa Pada Abad XX.” Jurnal Wanita & Keluarga 1(1).

Tempo.co. 2013. “Inilah Daftar Aliran Dana Fathanah Ke 45 Perempuan.” Tempo. https://nasional.tempo.co/read/482381/inilah-daftar-aliran-dana-fathanah-ke-45-perempuan (January 30, 2024).

TNR, Suseno. 2014. “Bagaimana PSK Maroko Bisa ‘Mangkal’ Di Puncak?” Tempo. https://metro.tempo.co/read/626440/bagaimana-psk-maroko-bisa-mangkal-di-puncak (January 25, 2024).

Toer, Pramoedya Ananta. 1996. This Earth of Mankind. Penguin Publishing Group.

Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA). 2000.

Tribun Medan. 2021. “Fakta-fakta PSK Belia Asal Maroko: Karena Parasnya Cantik Dijual 6 Juta di Kawasan Puncak Bogor.” Tribun-medan.com. https://medan.tribunnews.com/2021/01/25/fakta-fakta-psk-belia-asal-maroko-karena-parasnya-cantik-dijual-6-juta-di-kawasan-puncak-bogor (January 25, 2024).

Triwibowo, Dionisius Reynaldi. 2023. “Kasus Perdagangan Orang di Kalteng Berujung Prostitusi.” kompas.id. https://www.kompas.id/baca/nusantara/2023/07/06/kasus-perdagangan-orang-di-kalteng-berujung-prostitusi (January 30, 2024).

UN General Assembly. 2000. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/protocol-prevent-suppress-and-punish-trafficking-persons (January 15, 2023).

Waltman, Max. 2011. “Prohibiting Sex Purchasing and Ending Trafficking: The Swedish Prostitution Law.” Michigan Journal of International Law 33: 133. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/mjil33&id=137&div=&collection=.

van der Watt, Marcel. 2024. “Primary Prevention of Sex Trafficking: Time to Move the Needle on Demand Reduction.” Journal of Human Trafficking 0(0): 1–6. doi:10.1080/23322705.2024.2303264.

Yakin, Ayang Utriza, Adis Duderija, and An Van Raemdonck. 2023. Shame, Modesty, and Honor in Islam. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Yustiana, Kurnia. 2017. “Turis Timur Tengah Paling Banyak Ke Indonesia Di Bulan-Bulan Ini...” https://travel.detik.com/travel-news/d-3436699/turis-timur-tengah-paling-banyak-ke-indonesia-di-bulan-bulan-ini (January 31, 2024).




DOI: https://doi.org/10.36712/sdi.v31i2.39198 Abstract - 0 PDF - 0

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Creative Commons License
All publication by Studia Islamika are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Studia Islamika, ISSN: 0215-0492, e-ISSN: 2355-6145

View My Stats